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Employing the Health Belief Model, we examined the associations of modifying factors (age, sex, marital status, education, income, smoking initiation age, duration, quit intention, and health knowledge) and individual beliefs (perceived susceptibility, severity, barriers, benefits, and self-efficacy) with smoking behaviors, specifically quit attempts and smoking intensity

They then stratified every case where smoking status information was available into three groups: Current (defined as smoking at least 5 cigarettes per day for at least three months) Former (someone who had smoked more than 100 cigarettes in a lifetime but not in the past year) Never (smoked less than 100 cigarettes in a lifetime)

doi: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2017.05.012 112

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Public Health Implications The link between smoking and gum disease extends beyond individual health, highlighting significant public health implications